Maudos, Joaquín

The rate tightening embarked on by the ECB in mid-2022 has had a negative impact on debt sustainability for both Spanish corporations and households; however, the ultra-low rate environment until 2022, together with ongoing private sector deleveraging, offset the spike in interest rates such that debt service costs did not increase in 2023. As a result, last year, debt service for both Spanish corporations and households, at 34.7% of gross operating surplus and 5.6% of gross disposable income, respectively, remained low relative to international standards.